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The concept and underpinnings of periodization are deeply rooted in the history of athletics (track and field). Indeed, the seminal scientists and coaches who developed the principles of periodization include Dr. Hans Selye with his General Adaptation Syndrome model (Selye, 1950), followed by Matveyev, Bonderchuck, and Bompa (contributions reviewed by Issurin, 2010). Numerous approaches to periodization have emerged from this work, including classical, block, polarized, and complex models (Issurin, 2010; Kiely, 2012). Within this diversity is a central theme: the purposeful sequencing of different training units (long [macrocycle; months], medium [mesocycle; weeks], and short [microcycle; days and within-day duration]) so that athletes can attain the desired readiness to perform optimally for targeted events on demand (Stone et al., 1981). However, it is now appreciated that the chaos and complexities of the individual, exposed to various stimuli (physical, emotional, and genetic), are probably much more complicated than most periodization purists would want to admit (Kiely, 2018). Furthermore, the impact of nutrition on training adaptation and performance needs to be recognized. The 2007 International Association of Athletics Federations Nutrition Consensus presented the first formal opportunity to provide theoretical guidelines for nutrition periodization, with suggestions of the approximate energetic and macronutrient demands of different training phases within a yearly periodized training plan (Stellingwerff et al., 2007). Recently, periodized nutrition has been defined as "the planned, purposeful, and strategic use of specific nutritional interventions to enhance the adaptations targeted by individual exercise sessions or periodic training plans, or to obtain other effects that will enhance performance in the longer term (Jeukendrup, 2017a)." Athletics might be considered the sport most suited to the application of periodized nutrition, given the diversity of the bioenergetic and biomechanical demands of the numerous different events. By extension, given the unique demands of all athletic disciplines and events, it is beyond the scope of this review to highlight every potential nutrition periodization approach. Instead, we will focus on a general framework highlighting the various considerations in the implementation of periodized nutrition. This review will then highlight an emerging nutritional periodization concept around the various approaches to carbohydrate (CHO) and fat periodization; from a macrocycle (weeks to months; e.g., chronic low-CHO high-fat [(LCHF]) to mesocycle (several days to weekly; e.g., high dietary to upregulate CHO oxidation) and microcycle CHO periodization approaches (within day and between training session; e.g., acute CHO-manipulation).
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